Smoking Structural Effects

  • Structures Involved
    • main airways (bronchi)
      • loss of cilia and
      • mucous gland hypertrophy
    • bronchioles
      • inflammation,
      • epithelial changes,
      • fibrosis
        • peribronchial fibrosis
      • smooth muscle hypertrophy, and .
      • secretory congestion
    • alveoli
      • destruction of alveoli with loss of gas exchange surface area
      • loss of elasticity and airways flexibility.
    • immune system.